Discussion Question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 21

Discussion Question - Assignment Example Southern people feared that the North would gain strength and push abolition of slavery. The regional conflict between the North and South affected the political environment. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 saw the Northerners getting from the Union and formed a new slave state called Missouri while Maine became a slavery-free territory. The stands of North and South on slavery also influenced the compromise of 1850 that gave rise to doctrine of states’ rights (Brands, Breen, Williams & Gross, 2012). Both divisions were pushing for a state that would have equal leaders from slave and Free states. However, the compromise led to a bigger conflict that divided the two regions even further than in the beginning. Anti-slavery call inspired Abraham Lincoln rise to presidency. The North backed his candidacy because his victory would automatically impose their will on South. The Southern states did not have him on the ballot, but he won and brought moderate rule on slavery. The Southern states believed that Lincoln was against them. However, Lincoln did not have plans of violating doctrine of states’ rights in a bid to deal with the tension between the North and the

Native Americans vs. African Americans Essay Example for Free

Native Americans vs. African Americans Essay In today’s society there are many people living in poverty. All across America there are different projects and reservations where the less fortunate reside. Statistics show that mostly minorities live in these different locations. Native Americans and African Americans are two of the more popular races living in these places. The group suffering the most in these situations is the youth. Although both Native American and African American children living on a reservation or in the projects experience a terrible community, have little to no faith, and a broken family structure, African American youth living in the projects have it worse than Native American children living on a reservation. First, one of the most common living situations for less fortunate African Americans is in the projects. A project is a public living environment that is government owned. Although these buildings are government owned they are far from nice looking. Most of the buildings have no windows, are run down, dirty, and old. The government’s main goal is to maintain affordable housing not to make them the best looking homes in town. The projects aren’t a good environment for a child to be raised. Throughout these neighborhoods different gangs can be found. These gangs are built to defend the different areas in the projects. The gangs bring major violence to the area and are one of the main causes of death. At a young age children join these gangs and are raised to be violent. Many of them decorate the buildings they are living in with graffiti expressing their gang colors, symbols, or motto. In contrast, while Native American youth also live in poor housing, the environment is safer than the projects. A reservation is an area set aside for a specific type of land use or activity, or for use by a particular group of people, mostly Native Americans. Similar to the projects, houses on a reservation are old, beat down, and dirty. The houses on a reservation are government owned as well. Although these two locations are very similar they also differ. The reservation is a safer place then the projects. On the reservation there is a couple cases of mild violence but they aren’t as severe as the violence in the projects. Therefore, the reservations environment is a better environment than the projects. Secondly, many of the young people have no faith growing up in the projects. A lot of them believe their only way out of the projects is to become a basketball or football player or to become a top selling rap artist. At as young as sixteen years of age most African American males end up in jail, deceased, or selling drugs. A lot of them are also lead to believe that if they don’t do what every other man on the streets is doing, then they won’t make it anywhere in life. On the reservation the kids believe their only way out is to become NBA players or â€Å"powwowers†. Powwower’s are traditional Native American cheerleaders or dancers. Much like the African Americans growing up in the projects, the life expectancy rate for those living on a reservation is in the mid forties. Considering that both of these locations are in the United States mid forties is very young of age. Many of these people don’t live very long because they don’t have enough money to take care of themselves as well as their families. They also aren’t able to live a healthy lifestyle which shortens their days. Death is common in the two locations which leaves these two young groups wondering what’s beyond the age forty. Lastly, family structure is very important in a household. In the projects many of the homes lack a very strong family structure. Children growing up in the projects nine times out of ten don’t have both parents in the home. Most of them are drug dealers, alcoholics, prostitutes, or doing any and everything to try and provide for the child. Although these parents are trying to provide for their children a lot of the time they are also on welfare. Moreover, these children’s parents aren’t ever around, they sometimes go days without having anything to eat. Many of the young men follow after the footsteps of their father, older brother, or uncles which is why this cycle has continued for so long. Native Americans typically stick together as a unit. According to Sherman Alexie, an award winning author who grew up on a reservation, â€Å"Native American children are taught to be suspicious of Caucasian people. † Native Americans teach this to their children because there are many people in America that are against minorities and believe that just because they are the majority they’re better. A lot of the parents on a reservation go from job to job not being able to keep one job for a long period of time. Many of these parents are also alcoholics. On the other hand, some of these families on these reservations are very family oriented unlike the African American families in the projects. These Native American families have up to seventeen family members living in one house. They keep their families very close and are very supportive of one another rather then being against each other like African Americans. The parents watch over their children to make sure they don’t go down the wrong path in life. Although these families are experiencing hard times they cheer each other up and manage to smile every once in a while. Therefore, the Native Americans family structure is stronger then African Americans. In conclusion, Native American youth living on a reservation have it better then African American youth living in the projects. Both of these minorities are going through some hardships. From alcoholic parents to not having anything to eat they both are suffering as young children. Native American families provide a safer living environment, work harder, and look after one another, where as African Americans are against one another, on the streets all day, and are strongly associated with violence. As the years go on these families are hoping that the government will separate people in the projects and those living on reservations and provide them both with a better living situation. If these environments are separated the United States will be one step closer to eliminating violence in America.

Meningitis Vaccine Policy in Saudi Arabia

Meningitis Vaccine Policy in Saudi Arabia Meningitis Vaccine Policy During Hajj Overview of the Essay This essay looks at the meningitis vaccine policy during Hajj in Saudi Arabia, first looking at the healthcare system in Saudi Arabia, in terms of how the health care system is structured and what the policies towards vaccination against meningitis are. The essay then moves on to discuss more general policies towards meningitis vaccination, from the World Health Organisation (WHO), for example, and how the Saudi model of vaccination fits in to this more general framework. The essay then moves on to looking at social theories that have been suggested to explain how organisations work, in terms of understanding how meningitis can be spread through the hajjis attending the Hajj pilgrimage. The essay then moves on to look at what evidence has been gained from research in to meningitis outbreaks during Hajj, and meningitis control through vaccination. This is presented in the form of a literature review of the current, relevant, literature regarding meningitis outbreaks during Hajj, and meningitis control through vaccination. Literature that is specific to Saudi Arabia is focused on, although vaccination programmes that have been successfully attempted further afield will also be discussed. The essay then moves on to looking at how and when the current Saudi Arabian vaccination policy and how this policy differs from previous policies, in terms of why the new policy was introduced and what the positive and negative effects of this policy have been. This section incorporates research reviewed in the previous section, through the literature review of the relevant research, and also looks at how historical trends and international trends in healthcare have contributed to this policy. The impact of globalisation on health care is also discussed. The essay then moves on to discuss any gaps that are present between the stated policy and the implementation of this policy, in terms of the organisational constraints that are present that directly affect policy implementation. The next section of the essay looks at the implications of the policy for nursing practice, in terms of the direct involvement of nurses, the need for counselling and educating parents, in terms of the historical development of nursing and the international trends in nursing. Introduction The Saudi Healthcare System This section looks at how the health care system is structured in Saudi Arabia, and what the policies towards vaccination against meningitis are within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The essay then moves on to discuss more general policies towards meningitis vaccination, from the World Health Organisation (WHO), for example, and how the Saudi model of vaccination fits in to this more general framework. The essay then moves on to looking at social theories that have been suggested to explain how organisations work, in terms of understanding how meningitis can be spread through the hajjis attending the Hajj pilgrimage. The healthcare system in Saudi Arabia is essentially a national health care system, provided by the Government, which is overseen by the Ministry of Health (MOH), which provides primary healthcare services through a series of health care centres scattered throughout the Kingdom. These primary care centres refer applicable cases to advanced specialist curative services based in hospitals. In addition, secondary and tertiary care is provided by a variety of Ministries, and through a variety of private and public organisations: for example, Saudi Arabian universities provide specialist care, through their research hospitals and Saudi Arabian airlines provide health care to it’s employees. Emergency care is provided by the Saudi Red Crescent Society, and is also responsible for providing medical care during the Hajj and Umra pilgrimages. Health care is free, at the point of delivery, to all Saudi citizens and expatriates working in Saudi Arabia, and the Saudi Government spends an estimated ten per cent of its annual budget on health care: this seems to be a good investment as the Saudi’s have one of the highest life expectancy in the region, although obesity is becoming a concern in Saudi Arabia, due to the introduction of the ‘Western’ diet to the region. Whilst a more than adequate health care system is provided by the Saudi Government, as has been seen, there is also a thriving private healthcare system which provides all levels of care, from primary to tertiary and including emergency medical services. The Saudi Government is also interested in reforming the health care system, with a desire to achieve coordination amongst the various sectors and to increase the number of Saudi medical and nursing graduates so that Saudi employees can work in this sector, rather than employing many hundreds of thousands of expatriate nursing and medical staff, as is currently the case. The Saudi Government is also attempting to introduce a cooperative health insurance scheme, which would cover all non-Saudi residents living and working in the country. Infection Control for the Hajj In order to attend the Hajj, vaccination against the A and C meningitis strains was made mandatory, following on from the worldwide outbreak of meningitis A which occurred following the 1987 Hajj (Fonkoua et al., 2002) and a 1992 outbreak of meningitis A which occurred amongst Umra pilgrims (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003). In addition to this requirement for travellers entering Saudi Arabia for the Hajj, all hajjis coming from countries belonging to the African meningitis belt, and those arriving from areas that had recently experienced a meningitis outbreak, were required to take a single dose of ciprofloxacin upon arrival to Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2001). This policy was in place in Saudi Arabia until the recent outbreak of the W-135 serogroup. The current concern of health professionals and health organisations is, however, the W-135 serogroup, due to the recorded outbreak of meningitis amongst Singaporean pilgrims returning from the Hajj in 2001, many of whom had been vaccinated with the quadrivalent vaccine (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003). As stated in Wilder-Smith et al. (2003), there was a massive outbreak of serogroup W-135 meningitis in the 2000 and 2001 pilgrimages, through pharyngeal carriage of the serotype in pilgrims returning from the Hajj. Wilder-Smith et al. (2003) looked at meningitis carriage during the minor pilgrimage (Umra) and found that, whilst the W-135 serotype was carried, it was at a much lower rate of incidence, at 1.3% versus the 17% found in Hajj pilgrims, leading to their conclusion that in order to reduce the potential introduction of N.meningiditis W-135 in to the countries of origin of the pilgrims, then a ttentions would be better focused on those pilgrims attending the Hajj rather than the Umra. Following on from the Hajj-associated outbreak of W-135 serogroup, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health changed their policy with regards to meningitis and made it mandatory for hajjis to receive the quadrivalent vaccine (against A, C, Y and W-135) as a visa requirement from 2002 for people entering Saudi Arabia for the purposes of the Hajj (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003). In addition, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health administers antibiotics to all local Saudi hajjis in order to eradicate the carriage of the W-135 serogroup and to reduce transmission to local contacts and to the larger community (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003). In terms of more general policies with regards to vaccination programmes against meningitis, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended control practices for meningitis involve vaccination with the A/C vaccine in response to epidemics, which requires that epidemics are detected early and that stocks of vaccines be set up in at-risk regions, so that vaccination can be rapid (Fonkoua et al., 2002). Whilst other outbreaks of the W-135 strain of meningitis are becoming increasingly common, such as the outbreaks in Yaounde in Cameroon (Fonkoua et al., 2002) and in Burkina Faso (which killed 1500 people of the 13000 known to have been infected), the WHO is recommends preventative vaccination to protect those individuals at risk (for example, travellers, people in the military and pilgrims) (WHO, 2003) and vaccination for those who have been in close contact with known meningitis cases. In terms of vaccination for epidemic control, the WHO recommends that in the African meningitis belt , the known hotspot for meningitis, stretching from Senegal to Ethopia, epidemics be controlled with enhanced surveillance and the use of oily chloramphenicol, with mass vaccinations for those areas in the epidemic phase and those contiguous areas that are in alert phase: such mass vaccination, promptly administered is estimated to prevent seventy per cent of cases (WHO, 2003). As shown in a 2001 WHO report (WHO, 2001) on the emergence of the W-135 strain of meningitis, infection with this strain can lead to outbreaks of considerable size and because the epidemiology of this strain is not well understood, there is a serious need for travellers to the Hajj to be protected. The 2001 outbreak of W-135 strain of meningitis at the Hajj spread worldwide with a total of 304 cases reported and this outbreak raised serious questions as to whether the W-135 strain of meningitis will become a major public health problem at national and international levels (WHO, 2001). As shown in the NHS leaflet specially designed for UK citizens and residents planning on attending the Hajj, the W-135 strain of meningitis is deadly and vaccination against the A and C strains of meningitis does not protect an individual against this more deadly strain: only the quadrivalent vaccine will protect individuals against the W-135 strain of meningitis (NHS, 2007). In terms of the WHO policy on the W-135 strain of meningitis, the WHO has stated that the currently available vaccine is too expensive to be applicable for mass vaccination programmes that are known to be effective in the prevention of the epidemic outbreak of other meningitis strains, and so the WHO is pressing for an affordable vaccine against the W-135 strain, i.e., a vaccine at a price that would be affordable in an African situation, given that the majority of outbreaks of meningitis occurring worldwide occur in the African meningitis belt (WHO, 2003). Thus, there is no widespread vaccination programme with the quadrivalent vaccine, which protects against the W-135 strain of meningitis, unlike the routine vaccination programmes with the vaccines that are effective against the A and C strains. As the WHO, the Saudi government and various Governments who deal with their citizens who attend the Hajj (for example, the UK) are recommending, it is, at the moment, sufficient that the quadrivalent vaccine is given only to those who are at risk, i.e., those who are planning on entering a region that is known to have the W-135 strain. Widespread vaccination against the W-135 strain of meningitis is not being practiced anywhere in the world, mainly, it seems, due to the high cost of the vaccine but also due to the fact that there is no scientific evidence as to the global direction of the W-135 strain of meningitis i.e., the fact that there is no evidence, as yet, to suggest that the W-135 strain of meningitis will become a global scourge (WH O, 2001) and, as such, that it is not certain, as yet, as to whether a mass vaccination against this strain is necessary. Due to this information, the Saudi Arabian government implemented a mass vaccination with the tetravalent vaccine, active against the A, C and W strains of meningitis (WHO, 2001) and put in place the controls for hajjis as previously outlined: i) making it mandatory for hajjis to receive the quadrivalent vaccine (against A, C, Y and W-135) as a visa requirement from 2002 for people entering Saudi Arabia for the purposes of the Hajj (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); ii) administering antibiotics to all local Saudi hajjis in order to eradicate the carriage of the W-135 serogroup and to reduce transmission to local contacts and to the larger community (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); and iii) requiring all hajjis coming from countries belonging to the African meningitis belt, and those arriving from areas that had recently experienced a meningitis outbreak, to take a single dose of ciprofloxacin upon arrival to Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2001). Social theories to explain how organisations work This section looks at some of the social theories that have been suggested to explain how organisations work, in terms of understanding how meningitis can be spread through the hajjis attending the Hajj pilgrimage. In terms of the social theories that have been suggested to explain how organisations work, in terms of understanding how meningitis can be spread through the hajjis attending the Hajj pilgrimage Bourdieu, writing in Hillier and Rooksby (2005) talks about the concept of ‘habitus’ in terms of describing both geographical and social spaces or dispositions, which Bourdieu (2005) describes as permanent manners of being, seeing, acting and thinking, a permanent structure of perception, conception and action. Bourdieu’s (2005) thinking on habitus and dispositions can be applied to participation in the Hajj, as Bourdieu (2005) widens his definition of habitus to include unity of human behaviour, or what he terms lifestyle: that is, a set of acquired characteristics which are the product of prevailing social conditions. Bourdieu (2005) argues that this habitus, this disposition, can lead to entrenched behaviours and responses, especially in religious beliefs, for example, which leads, for example, to people wishing to attend the Hajj pilgrimage as part of their religious beliefs. Other social theories that have been put forward to explain organisational behaviour include social network theory (Barnes, 1954) which explains how social networks are formed, through the formation of nodes (i.e,, individuals) which are bound together through interdependency such as values or visions or disease transmission. The use of this theory can help epidemiologists explain how, for example, meningitis is spread amongst and beyond hajjis, leading to the development of plans and policies to contain the spread of meningitis. This will be looked at in more detail later in the essay. The Evidence from the Research This section looks at what evidence has been gained from research in to meningitis outbreaks during Hajj, and meningitis control through vaccination. This is presented in the form of a literature review of the current, relevant, literature regarding meningitis outbreaks during Hajj, and meningitis control through vaccination. Literature that is specific to Saudi Arabia is focused on, although outbreaks and vaccination programmes that have been successfully attempted further afield will also be discussed. There was a massive outbreak of serogroup W-135 meningitis in the 2000 and 2001 Hajj pilgrimages, through pharyngeal carriage of the serotype in pilgrims returning from the Hajj (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003). Wilder-Smith et al. (2003) looked at meningitis carriage during the minor pilgrimage (Umra) and found that, whilst the W-135 serotype was carried, it was at a much lower rate of incidence, at 1.3% versus the 17% found in Hajj pilgrims, leading to their conclusion that in order to reduce the potential introduction of N.meningiditis W-135 in to the countries of origin of the pilgrims, then attentions would be better focused on those pilgrims attending the Hajj rather than the Umra. Outbreaks of the W-135 strain of meningitis are becoming increasingly common further afield, such as the outbreaks in Yaounde in Cameroon (reported in Fonkoua et al., 2002) and in Burkina Faso (which killed 1500 people of the 13000 known to have been infected) (reported in WHO, 2001). To this end, as will be seen, whilst there is a vaccine against the W-135 strain of meningitis, this vaccine is extremely expensive and, as such, is not suitable for mass vaccination programmes. The vaccine is currently only in usage for travellers who are expecting to travel in to high risk regions, i.e., hajjis travelling to the Hajj which happens in a known outbreak area. It is hoped, however, that the WHO lobbying of the pharmaceutical companies will produce a more affordable version of the vaccine that would then be utilised in mass vaccination programmes, particularly across the African meningitis region, in order to minimise the spread of the deadly W-135 strain of meningitis. The Saudi Arabian Vaccination Policy This section looks at the current Saudi Arabian vaccination policy and how this policy differs from previous policies, in terms of why the new policy was introduced and what the positive and negative effects of this policy have been. This section incorporates research reviewed in the previous section, through the literature review of the relevant research, and also looks at how historical trends and international trends in healthcare have contributed to this policy. The impact of globalisation on health care is also discussed. Prior to the W-135 meningitis outbreak amongst those who had attended the 2001 Hajj, and following on from the worldwide outbreak of meningitis A which occurred following the 1987 Hajj (Fonkoua et al., 2002) and a 1992 outbreak of meningitis A which occurred amongst Umra pilgrims (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003), the Saudi Arabia vaccine policy was for mandatory vaccination against the A and C meningitis strains for all hajjis, with the necessity to present a certificate of vaccination upon application for a visa to travel to Saudi Arabia for the Hajj. In 2003, similarly to many other countries, such as the UK, who also undertake such a mass vaccination scheme, the Saudi Arabian government implemented a mass vaccination with the tetravalent vaccine, which is active against the A, C and W strains of meningitis (WHO, 2001). Following the 2001 W-135 outbreak, the Saudi Arabian Government put in place several controls for hajjis: i) it became mandatory for hajjis to receive the quadrivalent vaccine (against A, C, Y and W-135) as a visa requirement from 2002 for people entering Saudi Arabia for the purposes of the Hajj (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); ii) the Saudi Arabian Government administered antibiotics to all local Saudi hajjis in order to eradicate the carriage of the W-135 serogroup and to reduce transmission to local contacts and to the larger community (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); and iii) it became a requirement for entry to the country that all hajjis coming from countries belonging to the African meningitis belt, and those arriving from areas that had recently experienced a meningitis outbreak, were to take a single dose of ciprofloxacin upon arrival to Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2001). In terms of how international trends in healthcare and globalisation have contributed to these changes in the policy of the Saudi Arabian Government towards controlling meningitis, whilst the Hajj has always attracted pilgrims from all over the world, only recently has the deadly W-135 strain of meningitis reared its head, presenting a potentially disastrous scenario if this disease became epidemic as a consequence of the ideal conditions for disease replication that the Hajj presents. Thus, the Saudi Arabian Government has had to work fast to draw up a policy that minimises, as far as possible, the chances of a W-135 epidemic. The Saudi Arabian response to this threat has been impressive, in terms of drawing up practical, preventative measures so quickly and putting these in to practice so quickly. Globalisation has speeded up international travel and, through globalisation, the world has become, in a very real sense, smaller. One can literally travel wherever one desires, faster than ever before. The fact that there was an outbreak of W-135 in Singapore, amongst Singaporean hajjis, shows that what could once, historically, have been an isolated outbreak of such a deadly disease now has the potential to affect many thousands of individuals, as those infected could, potentially, travel on many different modes of transport, across many thousands of miles, coming in to contact with many different individuals, who could then become carriers of the disease, spreading the disease far afield and leading to different outbreaks of the same disease in places where the disease has never been reported previously. Problems Facing the Policies in Place to Prevent Meningitis Outbreaks During the Hajj This section discusses the gaps that are present between the stated policy and the implementation of this policy, in terms of the organisational constraints that are present that directly affect policy implementation. The actual situation of meningitis control amongst hajjis requires attention, as it is known that many hajjis enter Saudi Arabia illegally and thus are not reached by formal checks or health services whilst entering Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2001). This leads to the situation where diseases could be spread through an individual slipping through the many and varied controls that have been put in place by the Saudi Arabian Government, as it is known that many of these illegal immigrants come from countries that do not have vaccination programmes in place and who, therefore, are highly unlikely to have been vaccined prior to travelling to Saudi Arabia for the Hajj. For this reason, aside from the formal border controls on entry of hajjis, vaccination posts have been established in the last few years around the Holy Mosque (WHO, 2001). In addition, risks are presented by the arrival, at Saudi Arabian border entry ports, of individuals bearing false vaccination certificates. This presents a particular problem as these individuals put at risk the Saudi Arabian control policies that are in place, through the fact that these individuals may be carriers of disease, and may pass disease to the hajjis, but also because the need to vaccinate these individuals, often numbering in to the thousands, costs the Saudi Arabian Government time and money, paying for and administering the vaccine, a vaccine that is in short global supply and which is expensive (WHO, 2001). In terms of minimising the chances of such problems occurring, the Saudi Arabian Government has been in close talks with the Governments of countries of the African meningitis belt to offer direct, on the spot, help with vaccination programmes, donating vaccines to those countries who cannot afford them and opening temporary health centres in those countries that do not have the necessary infrastructure for the administration of said vaccines (WHO, 2001). The Saudi Arabian Government is also involved in research looking at, for example, carriage prevelance of meningitis strains in Mecca and the impact of mass chemoprophylaxis with ciprofloxacin (Who, 2001). Thus, whilst there are gaps that are present between the stated policy and the implementation of this policy, in terms of the organisational constraints that are present that directly affect policy implementation, the Saudi Arabian Government seems, really, as shown through this in-depth study, to be doing literally all it can to attempt to control, as far as possible, the outbreak of various strains of meningitis amongst hajjis during Hajj. Implications of the Saudi Arabian Policy for Nursing Practice The next section of the essay looks at the implications of the policy for nursing practice, in terms of the direct involvement of nurses, the need for counselling and educating parents, in terms of the historical development of nursing and the international trends in nursing. There are many and varied problems presented to UK nurses by the Saudi Arabian policy on vaccination against meningitis, in terms of the fact that UK nursing staff need training to understand the cultural significance of the Hajj to their muslim patients, in order to understand any potential requests for vaccination and to diagnose any potential diseases on their return from the Hajj. Nurses dealing directly with hajjis also require further training in the current vaccination requirements for hajjis, as determined by the Saudi Arabian Government’s vaccination policy, as shown through their visa requirements, in order to administer the correct, required, vaccines. The nursing staff in contact with hajjis should also be fully versed in the symptoms of all types of meningitis (including the deadly W-135) and other diseases that could be contracted whilst undertaking the Hajj, in order for timely diagnoses to be made, and timely treatment to be delivered to the patient. The fact that there was an outbreak of W-135 in Singapore, amongst Singaporean hajjis, shows that what could once, historically, have been an isolated outbreak of such a deadly disease now has the potential to affect many thousands of individuals, as those infected could, potentially, travel on many different modes of transport, across many thousands of miles, coming in to contact with many different individuals, who could then become carriers of the disease, spreading the disease far afield and leading to different outbreaks of the same disease in places where the disease has never been reported previously. Thus, globalisation has led to the situation where nursing staff need to be attuned to the possibility of ‘local’ patients presenting with ‘tropical’ or ‘foreign’ diseases. Whilst there is a system of reporting set up for such diseases, the early diagnosis of such diseases is often mistaken for common ailments, such as flu, for example, and diagnosis and treatment delayed, often leading to the spreading of the disease whilst the patient is ‘at large’ and not contained. This was the case in the 2001 outbreak of W-135 meningitis in the UK, with only 8 of the 51 total cases being actual pilgrims and 22 cases being contacts of the pilgrims, with 21 cases not having any apparent contact with the pilgrims: transmission was maintained for several months prior to diagnosis which is suspected to have led to many of the additional cases (WHO, 2001). Thus, nursing staff in countries that host Hajj attendees, such as the UK, need to be aware not only of current policies which affect the vaccination requirements of hajjis, but also of diseases that could be contracted whilst at the Hajj, in terms of knowing what symptoms to look for in patients returning from the Hajj. Saudi Arabian policies that are aimed at controlling the spread of meningitis during the Hajj thus not only have an effect on Saudi Arabian nursing staff, in terms of requiring them to administer any necessary vaccines and/or other medication, but also have a direct impact on nursing staff in those countries that host hajjis, for example, the UK, requiring special training for nursing staff. Conclusion This essay has looked at the meningitis vaccine policy during Hajj in Saudi Arabia, first looking at the healthcare system in Saudi Arabia, in terms of how the health care system is structured and what the policies towards vaccination against meningitis are. It was seen that the Saudi Arabian policies to vaccination against meningitis have changed somewhat in light of the 2001 outbreak of the W-135 strain of meningitis, which led to a tightening of requirements for entry to the country for the purposes of the Hajj and to a widespread vaccination programme across Saudi Arabia, and a local vaccination and medication programme in the immediate vicinity of the Hajj sites. The essay then moved on to discuss more general policies towards meningitis vaccination, from the World Health Organisation (WHO), for example, and how the Saudi model of vaccination fits in to this more general framework. As seen, the WHO is concerned that a major outbreak of the W-135 strain of meningitis could not be controlled, due to the high cost of the vaccine; the Saudi mondel fits in to this general framework in terms of aiming to prevent an outbreak not through mass vaccination with the quadrivalent vaccine but through the careful control of individuals entering the Hajj zone. The essay then moved on to looking at social theories that have been suggested to explain how organisations work, in terms of understanding how meningitis can be spread through the hajjis attending the Hajj pilgrimage, showing that many social theories are applicable to explain how diseases are transmitted across the Hajj period. The evidence that has been gained from research in to meningitis outbreaks during Hajj was then discussed, as was the historical treatment of meningitis control through vaccination. This was presented in the form of a literature review of the current, relevant, literature regarding meningitis outbreaks during Hajj, and meningitis control through vaccination. Literature that is specific to Saudi Arabia was focused on, although vaccination programmes that have been successfully attempted further afield were also discussed. The essay then moved on to look at how and when the current Saudi Arabian vaccination policy has changed, and how this policy differs from previous policies, in terms of why the new policy was introduced and what the positive and negative effects of this policy have been. It was shown that, prior to the W-135 meningitis outbreak amongst those who had attended the 2001 Hajj, and following on from the worldwide outbreak of meningitis A which occurred following the 1987 Hajj (Fonkoua et al., 2002) and a 1992 outbreak of meningitis A which occurred amongst Umra pilgrims (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003), the Saudi Arabia vaccine policy was for mandatory vaccination against the A and C meningitis strains for all hajjis, with the necessity to present a certificate of vaccination upon application for a visa to travel to Saudi Arabia for the Hajj. In 2003, similarly to many other countries, such as the UK, who also undertake such a mass vaccination scheme, the Saudi Arabian government implemented a mass vaccination with the tetravalent vaccine, which is active against the A, C and W strains of meningitis (WHO, 2001). Following the 2001 W-135 outbreak, the Saudi Arabian Government put in place several controls for hajjis: i) it became mandatory for hajjis to receive the quadrivalent vaccine (against A, C, Y and W-135) as a visa requirement from 2002 for people entering Saudi Arabia for the purposes of the Hajj (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); ii) the Saudi Arabian Government administered antibiotics to all local Saudi hajjis in order to eradicate the carriage of the W-135 serogroup and to reduce transmission to local contacts and to the larger community (Wilder-Smith et al., 2003); and iii) it became a requirement for entry to the country that all hajjis coming from countries belonging to the African meningitis belt, and those arriving from areas that had recently experienced a meningitis outbreak, were to take a single dose of ciprofloxacin upon arrival to Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2001). In terms of how historical trends and international trends in healthcare have contributed to this policy, and the impact of globalisation on health care, it was shown that globalisation has meant that diseases can spread far more rapidly and widely than ever before, and that this has grave consequences in terms of deadly diseases such as the W-135 strain of meningitis. Various problems for the Saudi Arabian vaccination policy were then discussed, and the relevant solutions were given, and then the essay moved on to discussing the role of nurses involved in the care potential hajjis and of returning, infected, hajjis, in terms of the implications of the Saudi Arabian vaccination policy for nursing practice, in terms of the direct involvement of nurses, the need for counselling and educating parents, and in terms of the historical development of nursing and the international trends in n

Achrondoplasia Essay -- essays research papers

Imagine living in a world where everything is super-sized. Imagine having to step on a stool to crawl into bed, or having to climb onto a shelf to be able to reach a light switch. Most of all, imagine having to look up to your much taller younger sister when she speaks to you. Situations like these are what Ivy Broadhead, a teenager with achondroplasia, have to go through everyday. Ivy was born with achondroplasia, the most common form of dwarfism. It is caused by the presence of two mutant alleles in the fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 (FGFR3). It is a substitution, to be precise, at nucleotide number 1138 in the DNA. This substitution on the DNA level results in a minute change on the protein level. This change in the protein impairs the function of the FGFR3 receptor. It is not currently known how this change produces the features of achondroplasia, but scientists are working on it. Ivy is the third generation in her family to be affected by achondroplasia. Her grandfather, her father, and her brother also have it. Achondroplasia is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait whereby only a single copy of the abnormal gene is required to cause achondroplasia. Nobody with the mutated gene can escape having achondroplasia. Many individuals with achondroplasia have normal parents, though. In this case, the genetic disorder would be caused by a de novo gene mutation. De novo gene mutations are associated with advanced paternal age, often defined as over age 35 years. If an individual with achondroplasia produce offspring with a normal individual, the chances of the offspring inheriting the mutant allele achondroplasia is 50%. If both of the parents have achondroplasia, the chances that their offspring will be of normal stature a... ...asia." University of Virginia Health System. 6 Nov. 2007. University of Virginia. 03 Feb. 2008 . Anonymous (4). "Zoey." Zoey's Story- Achondroplasia. 27 Sept. 2007. 3 Feb. 2008 . Broadhead, Ivy. "Living with Achondroplasia." ChronicleLive. 4 Aug. 2005. The Evening Chronicle. 3 Feb. 2008 . Francomano, Clair A. "Achondroplasia." Gene Reviews. 9 Jan. 2006. 02 Feb. 2008 . Nicholson, Linda. "Genetic Counseling." Kids Health. Apr. 2007. 3 Feb. 2008 .

Psychology Notes Essay

1) Four big ideas in psychology: a. Critical thinking is smart thinking b. Behavior is a bio psychosocial event c. We operate with a two-track mind (Dual processing) d. Psychology explores human strengths as well as challenges 2) Why do psychology? e. The limits of intuition and common sense i. Enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. ii. May aid queries, but are not free of error. iii. Hindsight Bias: the â€Å"I-knew-it-all-along† phenomenon. 1. After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. iv. Overconfidence: thinking you know more than what you actually know. f. The scientific attitude v. Composed of curiosity, skepticism, and humility. vi. Curiosity: passion for exploration. vii. Skepticism: doubting and questioning. viii. Humility: ability to accept responsibility when wrong. g. The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do. 3) How do psychologists ask and answer questions? h. The scientific method ix. Construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. x. Theory: an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. (Example: low self-esteem contributes to depression). xi. Hypothesis: a testable prediction, often promoted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. (Example: people with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed). xii. Research: to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. (Example: people who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm the hypothesis). i. Description xiii. Basic purpose: to observe and record behavior. xiv. How conducted: do case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations. xv. Weaknesses: No control of variables; single cases may be misleading. xvi. Case Study: a technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. xvii. Survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people. xviii. Wording can change the results of a survey xix. Random Sampling: when each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusions into a sample (unbiased). 2. If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid. xx. Naturalistic Observation: observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunchroom constitute naturalistic observation. j. Correlation xxi. Basic purpose: to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another. xxii. How conducted: compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses. xxiii. Weaknesses: does not specify cause and effect. xxiv. When one trait or behavior accompanies another. xxv. Correlation Coefficient: a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables. 3. Example: R = + 0.37 a. R is the correlation coefficient b. + is the direction of relationship (either + or – ) c. 0.37 indicates the strength of relationship xxvi. Correlation DOES NOT mean causation. 4. Examples: d. Low self-esteem could cause depression e. Depression could cause low self-esteem f. Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause low self-esteem and depression. xxvii. Illusory Correlation: the perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. (Example: parents conceive children after adoption). xxviii. Order in Random Events: 5. Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. 6. Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order. k. Experimentation xxix. Basic purpose: to explore cause and effect. xxx. How conducted: manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment. xxxi. What is manipulated: the independent variable(s). xxxii. Weaknesses: sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables. xxxiii. The backbone of psychological research 7. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships. xxxiv. Double-blind Procedure: in evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. xxxv. Random Assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control conditions, by random assignment, minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups. xxxvi. Independent Variable: a factor manipulated by the experimenter. 8. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study 9. Example: when examining the effects of breast-feeding upon intelligence, breast-feeding is the independent variable. xxxvii. Dependent Variable: a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. 10. Usually a behavior or a mental process. 11. Example: in the study of the effect of breast-feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable. 4) Aristotle l. 384-322 B.C. m. Naturalist and philosopher n. Theorized about psychology’s concepts o. Suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from experience. p. â€Å"The soul is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the soul.† -Aristotle 5) Wundt q. 1832-1920 r. Studied the â€Å"atoms of the mind† s. Experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, which is considered the birth of psychology. 6) William James t. 1842-1910 u. American philosopher v. Wrote psychology textbook in 1890 w. James’s student, Mary Calkins, became the APA’s first female president xxxviii. She was not able to attain her PhD from Harvard. 7) Sigmund Freud x. 1856-1939 y. Austrian physician z. Emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior. 8) Psychology {. Originated in many disciplines and countries |. Defined as the science of mental life until the 1920s. }. 1920-1960: psychology was heavily oriented towards behaviorism. ~. Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. 9) Pavlov, Watson and Skinner . Watson: 1878-1958 . Skinner: 1904-1990 . Emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology instead of mind or mental thoughts. . â€Å"Anything seems commonplace, once explained.† -Watson 10) Maslow and Rogers . Maslow: 1908-1970 . Rogers: 1902-1987 . Emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our need for love and acceptance. 11) The American Psychological Association (APA) . The largest organization of psychology . 160,000 members world-wide . Followed by the British Psychological Society with 34,000 members. 12) Current perspectives . Neuroscience: how the body and brain enables emotions xxxix. How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? . Evolutionary: how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation on one’s genes. xl. How does evolution influence behavior tendencies? . Behavior genetics: how much our genes and our environments influence our individual differences xli. To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributable to our genes? To our environment? . Psychodynamic: how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. xlii. How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas? . Behavioral: how we learn observable responses. xliii. How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking? . Cognitive: how we encode, process, store and retrieve information xliv. How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving? . Social-cultural: how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures. xlv. How are we- as Africans, Asians, Australians or north Americans- alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ? 13) Psychology’s subfields . Biological: explore the links between brain and mind. . Developmental: study-changing abilities from womb to tomb. . Cognitive: study how we perceive, think, and solve problems. . Personality: investigate our persistent traits. . Social: explore how we view and affect one another . Clinical: studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. . Counseling: helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges. . Educational: studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings. . Industrial/Organizational: studies and advises on behavior in the workplace. 14) Clinical vs. Psychiatry . Clinical Psychologist: (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy. . Psychiatrists: (M.D.) medical professionals who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients. 15) Three main levels of analysis

Lost Worlds Essay

Some Americans remember where they came from; others don’t. That’s the case in Daniel Chacon’s story â€Å"The Biggest City in the World†. It is a story about Harvey Gomez who is a Mexican American young man whose grandparents migrated to the Unites States from Mexico. Harvey has only been to Mexico once in his entire life and neither of his parents has ever been there before. Therefore he doesn’t know anything about his native culture or language. In this story Harvey travels deep inside of Mexico for the first time with his Mexican history Professor David P. Rogstart and gets exposed to its culture and language. On the contrary, Carolina Hospital’s poem â€Å"Finding Home† is about Mexicans who were born in Mexico and later migrated to America. When Harvey arrives in Mexico he tries to distance himself from the country’s culture. In fact, shortly after he comes out of his hotel room the first place that he goes to is La Zona Rosa because â€Å"The expensive shops, Gucci, Polo, Yves St. Laurent, relaxed him because they reminded him of Beverly Hills† (Chacon 58). Harvey is going to places in Mexico that he is familiar with back in the United States and is not trying to explore his heritage. Perhaps this is because he doesn’t feel like he is a Mexican and that he is only an American. After all, he was born and raised in the United States by parents who have never been to Mexico themselves. Harvey eventually gets exposed to ancient Aztec monuments when he runs into Professor Rogstart who is viewing stone carvings. As Harvey decides to take a closer look at the stone carvings, he is seeing history of his heritage and begins to compare it. Gomez wondered how many Aztecs were scared into believing in their gods, like his father tried to make him believe in Jesus and the Virgin Mary† (Chacon 60). He starts thinking how the Aztecs were raised up into worshiping their gods in Mexico and how his father brought him up into believing in God in America. Harvey learns about the Spanish Conquest of Mexico and begins to ask Professor Rogstart questions. He gives him honest answers â€Å"Rogstart, feeling a professorial obligation, explained to Gomez the meaning of each panel, each symbol, giving such fine details† (Chacon 61). During the explanation, Harvey feels a sense of pride in his heritage. You can tell that Harvey now wants to learn more about his past; however, he is still struggling to accept his heritage. As Harvey continues his journey in Mexico, he repeatedly distances himself from the Mexicans. Harvey is reacting this way because he is attached to money. That will soon come to an end as Harvey himself loses all of his money. â€Å"He slipped his hand into his pocket for his roll of bills† (Chacon 63). After he realizes that he is broke, he starts to panic. Harvey’s immediate reaction is to find his money no matter what it takes, but when he does not find it, Harvey starts to feel the same way the Mexicans did when they begged him for money. This is the first time that he feels this way because he was raised in America where money is a major influence in life. When it looks like it will be the end of his journey in Mexico, he discovers it is beginning. Harvey enters a taxi and tells the driver â€Å"Take me to the Zona Rosa† (Chacon 65). During the ride, Harvey is relaxed and begins to feel like a Mexican deep in his heart. When it seems that he is going to continue his denial, he tells the driver â€Å"Take me to Chapultepec Park† (Chacon 66). The cab driver is surprised and Harvey laughs telling him that he wants to explore Mexico. Harvey finally ends the denial of his Mexican heritage and goes on to explore Mexico. The poem â€Å"Finding Home† written by Carolina Hospital tells the story of how Mexicans who come to America try to find their heritage in the United States. Like many who migrate to America, the immigrants miss their country and are concerned about losing their culture. In contrast to Harvey Gomez, this poem shows that many Mexicans in America appreciate their heritage. â€Å"I have travelled north again,/to these gray skies/and empty doorways,† (Hospital 101). This shows that they miss their native country and are concerned about forgetting their heritage. Perhaps Harvey’s grandparents thought the same thing when they first came to America from Mexico. Regardless of their arrival in America, they want to return to Mexico someday. â€Å"I must travel again soon† (Hospital 102). Despite leaving their ative land they have respect for Mexico and will visit again. After the experience that Harvey had in discovering his heritage, I am sure that he will visit Mexico again. Daniel Chacon is clearly making a statement that Mexican immigrants whose kids are born and raised in America forget their own culture. In the story Harvey Gomez is denying his heritage and was embarrassed at times to admit that he is Mexican. This is because he barely knows anything about Mexico and doesn’t even speak the language. Eventually Harvey accepts who he is and discovers his heritage throughout the story. I believe that Chacon wants to demonstrate how important it is for people to know where they come from and not to forget who they are. Carolina Hospital indicates that Mexican immigrants in America continue to appreciate their heritage. In her poem the Mexicans are not embarrassed to admit where they come from. The Mexicans embrace their heritage and plan on visiting Mexico. I believe that Hospital wants to demonstrate that Mexicans immigrants do appreciate their heritage. However the fact is that no matter where people come from they must appreciate their heritage.